Academic Paper: Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in Israeli Society: The Model of Military Suicides

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By: Prof. Dr. Walid ‘Abd al-Hay.[1]
(Exclusively for al-Zaytouna Centre).

Introduction

Most studies examining the psychological effects of Operation al-Aqsa Flood agree that it produced a contemporary manifestation of what psychology identifies as Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). PTSD is characterized by a psychological disturbance arising from an extremely stressful, terrifying, and unexpected event. Whether an individual is directly involved or merely witnesses the traumatic event, its impact on both the individual and society is closely intertwined. Symptoms may include recurrent memories of the traumatic event, nightmares, intense anxiety, or intrusive thoughts; sometimes to the extent of suicidal ideation.

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These effects are particularly severe and complex when exposure is collective rather than individual, as is often the case in wars, resulting in broader and more intricate psychological consequences. In general, PTSD symptoms are categorized into four domains:[2]

1. Intrusive memories of the traumatic event or related cues.

2. Avoidance behaviors aimed at evading memories or reminders of the traumatic event.

3. Negative changes in thinking and mood.

4. Changes in physical and emotional reactions.

Suicide has been the focus of extensive research by psychologists, sociologists, and physicians, as it is widely regarded as an outcome of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).[3] The explanations for this behavior are diverse. David Émile Durkheim linked it to an individual’s inability to adapt, identifying three contributing factors: egoistic suicide, arising from social isolation and a lack of integration; altruistic suicide, reflecting the prioritization of the group or society over the self; and anomic suicide, resulting from social instability or the breakdown of norms, which leaves individuals without guidance in times of crisis. Sigmund Freud, in contrast, suggested that suicidal tendencies could arise from the self-directed expression of Thanatos, the death instinct, interacting with the life instinct (Eros) within the framework of the psyche’s structural components: the id, ego and superego. Albert Camus related it to the individual’s confrontation with the absence of inherent meaning in life, a perspective he framed within his philosophy of the absurd. Arthur Schopenhauer interpreted it as an attempt to escape the persistent suffering inherent in life and the ceaseless drive of the will to live, which can lead one toward suicidal tendencies. Biological research has further illuminated the phenomenon, indicating that dysfunction in the serotonin system, commonly known as the “happiness hormone,” caused by neurological imbalance, can contribute to depression, anxiety, impaired concentration and related symptoms.

Thomas Joiner’s Interpersonal Theory of Suicide (ITS) has garnered particular attention among researchers. The theory proposes that an individual becomes prone to suicide when three psychological factors converge:[4]

1. Perceived burdensomeness: The sense that one is a burden to others and that those around them would be better off without them.

2. Thwarted belongingness: The experience of alienation, isolation or disconnection from the broader social network, arising from feelings of not belonging and an inability to form meaningful personal relationships.

3. Acquired capability: The combination of the desire for death and the actual ability to act on it, achieved by overcoming the innate human drive for self-preservation.

Joiner identifies two stages in the suicidal process: the desire for suicide and the enactment of that desire. An individual experiencing “thwarted belongingness” may develop a “desire” for suicide, but will act on this desire only when “acquired capability” is present. At this point, the state progresses from suicidal ideation to a suicide attempt, reflecting the overcoming of the instinct for survival.

Available data on Israeli society across two periods: Before Operation al-Aqsa Flood (7/10/2023), the pre-trauma period, and since then, the post-trauma period, show a marked rise in suicide rates within the military community, particularly the Israeli army. This phenomenon warrants careful analysis, particularly through the lens of suicide theories. Quantitative data indicate that Israel ranks first in the region for suicide rates among Middle Eastern countries.

The author argues that the PTSD theory offers the most suitable lens for understanding the impact of Operation al-Aqsa Flood on Israeli society, particularly among military personnel, while drawing on certain indicators identified in psychological, social-psychological, and political-psychological theories.

First: Suicide in Israeli Society and the Military

Analysis of various international reports (including the World Health Organization (WHO), specialized research centers and academic studies) shows that Israel has the highest suicide rate among Middle Eastern countries with which it has interacted over the past 75 years.

Between 2000 and 2021, Israel’s suicide mortality rate ranged from 6.8 per 100 thousand population at its peak to 4.4 per 100 thousand at its lowest, whereas the average rate across the rest of the region was approximately 2.35 per 100 thousand,[5] less than half that of Israel.

Notably, a comparison between Israel and Palestinian society reveals a striking disparity in suicide rates. In Palestinian society, the rate stands at 0.78 per 100 thousand, approximately 15% of Israel’s rate, despite the considerable social, political and economic pressures, both material and psychological, endured by Palestinians. Remarkably, according to the WHO, Palestinian society has the lowest suicide rate in the world.[6]

According to WHO reports, approximately 73% of suicides occur in low- and middle-income countries. Israel, by contrast, is classified as a high-income country (based on Purchasing Power Parity—PPP), alongside EU countries, Japan and some oil-rich Gulf states such as Kuwait.[7] This suggests that the correlation between Israel’s relatively high suicide rate and individual income is weak and insufficient to explain the phenomenon.

In 2024, Israel’s Democracy Index stands at 7.8 (out of 10), compared with an average of 3.12 across Middle Eastern countries. Yet suicide rates in the Middle East remain significantly lower than in Israel, suggesting that the type of political system alone does not account for the disparity.[8]

Another important metric is the Militarization Index. Israel ranks second globally after Ukraine, having previously held the top spot before 2022. Remarkably, Israel also ranks second (after Armenia) in the proportion of its population serving in the military, whether active or reserve, at a rate of 1.77; an exceptionally high figure.[9]

Suicide rates among military personnel are higher than those among civilians in most countries, and the problem is particularly acute in Israel. Soldiers generally face a range of pressures, including:[10]

1. Physically demanding work.

2. Long working hours.

3. Separation from family and social life.

4. Obeying successive orders, especially during wars.

5. Negative life events, such as the death of a family member or fellow unit member.

6. Conflicts with authority, particularly leaders perceived as unfair.

7. Dissatisfaction with their posting, compulsory military service, or recall to duty, as with reserve soldiers.

These pressures affect all soldiers, whether engaged in combat or serving in combat support and reserve units.

Comparative studies in other societies show that suicide is generally higher among males than females, higher among military personnel than civilians, and higher among youth than older adults.[11] It is evident that suicide rates in Israel are elevated: 8.36 among men versus 1.97 among women, meaning the male rate is 4.24 times that of females. Moreover, Israel’s population pyramid reflects a predominance of youth over older adults, factors that may help explain its relatively high suicide rates within the regional context. By contrast, among Palestinians, suicide rates are 1.24 for males and 0.31 for females, underscoring a marked difference between the two populations and reinforcing our earlier conclusion.[12]

Studies indicate that the factors shaping suicide in civilian society stem from variations in age, social life, gender, education level, and military service or post-service experiences. Quantitative research on armies specifically shows that men who have witnessed, heard about, or engaged in unethical acts—such as betrayal, desertion, or evasion of battle—are 50% more likely to attempt suicide during military service than before enlistment (i.e., prior to transitioning from civilian to military life), underscoring the role of military life in elevating suicide rates. They are also twice as likely to attempt suicide after leaving service. Men inclined toward unethical behavior (e.g., betrayal) or who have observed it in others were nearly twice as likely to attempt suicide while serving. Women who engaged in betrayal were over 50% more likely to attempt suicide during service.[13] Suicide theories help illuminate this complexity: the conflict appears particularly intense between the superego (conscience) and the id (desire), with the ego (reason) unable to reconcile the contradiction, ultimately privileging the death drive over the life drive, as Freud’s analysis suggests.

The flight of an Israeli soldier from confrontation, witnessing acts of “heroism” by resistance fighters, hesitating to rescue or even attempt to rescue a comrade on the battlefield, killing women and children, or blocking—sometimes killing—a hungry person seeking to reach an aid distribution center, all exacerbate the conflict of the Freudian triad (reason, conscience and desire). This, in turn, heightens PTSD, which continues to manifest in the soldier’s behavior and anxieties. Deep in his subconscious lies a sense of being an occupier of “someone else’s land,” a criminal who kills women and children, a destroyer of hospitals, schools and the tents of those awaiting aid, accompanied by the growing bleakness of his image worldwide. He is also acutely aware that the conflict has persisted for more than three-quarters of a century with no end in sight. Testimonies by Israeli soldiers before the Knesset, along with Israeli health reports, confirm the prevalence of these emotions and psychological patterns. Official Israeli data indicate that the monthly average of wounded soldiers is one thousand, with 35% suffering mental trauma and 27% diagnosed with PTSD.[14]

Veterans face a markedly increased risk of suicide. In 2020, the suicide rate among veterans was 50% higher than that of civilian adults. Between 2001 and 2020, suicide rates rose by 95% among young veterans, 13% among those of middle age, 58% among retirees, and 21% among veterans aged 75 and older. According to the 2021 National Survey on Drug Use and Health, 5% of veterans aged 18 and above reported suicidal thoughts, approximately 1% reported having a suicide plan, and slightly under 1% reported a suicide attempt. Compared with non-veterans, veterans were 42% more likely to report suicidal thoughts, 97% more likely to report planning suicide, and nearly three times more likely to report a suicide attempt.[15] Joiner’s theory offers a particularly valuable framework for understanding the heightened risk of suicidal ideation among both active-duty personnel and veterans. Its three dimensions largely account for these outcomes, although previous studies—most of which used cross-sectional designs—have notable limitations in applying the Interpersonal Theory of Suicide (ITS). This poses a challenge because the theory emphasizes that its core elements evolve over time,[16] making it impossible to directly compare conditions before Operation al-Aqsa Flood with those that followed.

What further supports Thomas Joiner’s theory is that, over a continuous 33-year period, a comparison of suicide rates between Jewish immigrants from Ethiopia and those from the former Soviet republics reveals that Ethiopian immigrants have a noticeably lower adaptive capacity than their Soviet counterparts. This, in turn, reinforces Durkheim’s argument that adaptation provides a valid explanation for this phenomenon within Israeli society.[17]

Second: The Impact of Operation al-Aqsa Flood on Suicide in Israeli Society

It is essential to highlight certain socio-psychological stress indicators that help explain the rise in suicide rates in Israel following Operation al-Aqsa Flood, particularly among military personnel, as shown in the table below. These indicators include:

1. No Israeli scientific or political body anticipated that Operation al-Aqsa Flood would last as long as it has, and which continues at the time of writing. Most research centers were unable to monitor the conflict’s duration or trajectories. An academic study notes the many challenges that make predicting this phenomenon extremely difficult.[18] This likely places Israeli soldiers under constant high stress, fostering increasing frustration the longer the confrontation continues.

2. Frustration among Israeli soldiers is intensifying as they struggle to comprehend the resistance’s ability to endure for such an extended period, unlike any previous Israeli military encounters with Arab armies or even Palestinian factions. Most earlier wars with Arab states or these factions were relatively short-lived. The prolonged period of anxiety, coupled with the intense stress experienced by the Israeli soldier and the frustration of failing to achieve the rapid victories ingrained in their mental repertoire, further deepens a sense of despair.[19]

3. Since 1947, Israel has never experienced such profound internal disruption. This is evident in nearly daily protests, persistent questioning of leadership, recurring crises between politicians and the military, and even the use of language in accusations that is unusual in Israeli political discourse. These dynamics have led individual Israelis, particularly members of the military, to experience a form of psychological recoil or PTSD. The shock of Operation al-Aqsa Flood and its aftermath has further intensified this internal disturbance.[20]

4. Israel’s image within the international community has eroded markedly. Prior to Operation al-Aqsa Flood, Israelis largely harbored a sense of “superiority.” Yet demonstrations in Western societies, the stances of global elites, the narratives circulating on social media, and the internal disarray within the global Jewish community, coupled with persistent condemnations from international organizations and rulings by the International Court of Justice (ICJ) and the International Criminal Court (ICC), as well as from international non-governmental organizations, have all undermined that perception. Between 2006 and 2024, Israel received 154 condemnations from the United Nations (UN) General Assembly and 108 from the UN Human Rights Committee, nearly double the total directed at all other countries combined. When these are viewed alongside the genocide scenes affirmed by international courts…,[21] the once-prevalent sense of superiority has given way to a subconscious perception of inferiority among Israelis, a condition acknowledged by a notable number of Israeli elites themselves.[22]

5. The Israeli government’s demand during negotiations that the resistance halt the ceremonies accompanying the release of Israeli captives is not a matter to be taken lightly. These ceremonies were so organized and dignified that many Israeli experts acknowledged the psychological breakthrough the resistance had achieved within Israeli society and the global arena alike.[23]

6. Among both Israeli civilians and military personnel, there is a prevailing perception that the Middle East is the most politically unstable region in the world, with 78% of its countries classified as unstable. Israel ranks 155th out of 163 countries on the Global Peace Index, reinforcing the sense of a society in a state of perpetual war. On average, Israel faces a military confrontation, popular uprising, war of attrition, or major battle with Arab states or resistance groups approximately every four years.[24] This sustained state of war entrenches a volatile society, fostering psychological and social disorders, suicide being one manifestation. This reality helps explain why Israel records the highest suicide rate in the Middle East and ranks 138th out of 182 countries globally.[25]

Suicide Rates in Israel Before and After Operation al-Aqsa Flood[26]

Year	Number of cases (military)	Army size (in thousand)	Rate per 100 thousand	Civilians	Rate per 100 thousand
2021	11	170	6.5	359	4.2
2022	14	170	8.2	358	4.2
2023	17 (after 7 Oct)	500	3.4	N/A	5.2
2024	21	500	4.2	N/A	5.3
2025	15 (until mid-July)	500	6	N/A	–

The table above reveals a steady increase in the annual rate during the 2023–2025 war years,[27] confirming that Operation al-Aqsa Flood, together with persistent regional instability, has intensified the psychological consequences of war and domestic unrest. Israel now ranks 173rd globally in stability, a drop of 44 places compared to its pre-Operation position.[28] This decline was further exacerbated by Iranian strikes on Israel during the 13–22/6/2025 war, as reflected in Israeli army reports noting a sharp rise in suicide cases since the onset of the war on GS (As shown in the above table). The army also reported that thousands of soldiers have withdrawn from combat duty due to psychological stress.

This trend has prompted Israel to implement new preventive measures after 15 months of war, mobilizing hundreds of thousands of reservists. The Israeli army[29] reported that 28 soldiers committed suicide from the start of the war through the end of 2024, representing the highest toll in 13 years and raising concerns about a potential mental health crisis within the military. In addition, the army noted several “suspected” suicide cases, all of which remain under investigation.

In a report on injuries over the past two years, the Israeli army stated that it recorded 21 cases of suicide in 2024, an increase of 4 compared to 17 cases in the previous year. Of these, 10 occurred before the October 7 attacks, while 7 took place during the first three months of the confrontation. This rise is particularly notable compared with previous years, when 14 suspected suicides were recorded in 2022 and 11 in 2021. More than half of the 2024 suicides involved reservists, reflecting the sharp increase in the number of reservists called up since the start of the war. Brigadier General Amir Vadmani, chief of staff for the Human Resources Directorate in the Israeli army, noted that the army has implemented several measures to prevent suicide, including “a 24/7 mental health hotline has been established, alongside an increase in the number and availability of mental health officers… A dedicated clinic for active-duty personnel has been established, and services addressing combat-related reactions among both veterans and career servicemembers have been expanded.”[30]

In 2021, the Israeli army claimed to have reduced suicide rates by 75% through prevention programs. However, some reports question the accuracy of these figures,[31] and even if they are accepted, Operation al-Aqsa Flood has reignited the phenomenon with even greater intensity.

On the other hand, a phenomenon that increasingly concerns Israeli planning centers is the high concentration of suicides among young people. A study of Israeli military suicides from 1974 to 1984 found that cases were concentrated among soldiers aged 18–21, with the suicide rate in this group rising.[32] These findings are reinforced by another statistical study[33] covering soldiers who committed suicide between 1974 and 2001, including those aged 18–51 (conscripts, professional soldiers, and reservists), which found that 60% of the 830 soldiers who took their own lives were young men. The same research indicates that suicide rates among female soldiers are lower than among males, a pattern observed worldwide, though Israel exhibits specific contributing factors. Women enlist at a rate 20% lower than men, which partly explains the lower suicide rates. Military service for men is longer—three years of mandatory service compared with two for women—and women also undergo shorter training periods. Furthermore, participation in combat operations is mandatory for men but not for women, reducing women’s likelihood of exposure to trauma.[34]

If we add to the above another phenomenon, the level of public trust in the Israeli military’s reporting of suicide cases, an Israeli institute’s survey found that the public trust in the army’s suicide reporting dropped from 46% in 2020 to 38% in 2021. Distrust was especially pronounced among younger Israelis: only 29% of those aged 18 to 24 expressed trust in the army on this issue, compared with 44% of those aged 55 and older.[35]

Comparative Analysis

Quantitative comparisons show that the suicide rate in Israeli society is roughly six times higher than that in Palestinian society within Palestine.[36] When comparing males in both societies, the difference remains nearly the same (8.3 in Israel versus 1.24 in Palestinian society), suggesting that Palestinian society exhibits greater psychological resilience to trauma despite enduring repeated shocks. A study conducted by the British military over more than a century found that suicide rates were higher in the civilian population than in the military.[37] Similarly, a US study spanning nearly two centuries (1819–2017) indicated that suicide rates during periods of war in the US military were generally lower than in peacetime. However, this pattern shifted during conflicts such as the Vietnam War and the Iraq War, where rates ranged from 20.2% to 29.7%. The study further links two variables, war duration and suicide rates, based on findings from the Vietnam, Afghanistan and Iraq wars.[38] This supports the view that the prolonged confrontations during Operation al-Aqsa Flood may help explain the elevated suicide rates in the Israeli military. It also underscores the observation that offensive external wars are perceived as less “ethical” than defensive internal wars.

Conclusion

Israel’s high militarization index, the prolonged conflicts spanning more than 75 years, and the recurring wars or military operations, offensive and defensive, occurring on average every four years, all intensified after Operation al-Aqsa Flood. The Flood also played a role in reshaping Israel’s image in the international community, casting it as a rogue state subject to the highest number of condemnations from both governmental and non-governmental international organizations, including the leading international courts. An outcome that, from the perspective of the Israeli intellectual elite, is likely to have long-term repercussions.[39]

Israel, like Spartan societies, exhibits a neurotic social structure; driven by fears and collective anxiety, and inclined toward fanaticism and excessive violence. While it may achieve tactical or field successes under certain conditions and for limited periods, it remains highly vulnerable to internal strain due to the neurotic psychological framework on which it is built.

It is essential for the Palestinian side to give greater attention to the psychological structure and underlying dynamics of Israeli society, examining its vulnerabilities and the ways they can be leveraged in conflict, negotiation and media warfare.

The rise in suicide, intensified by Operation al-Aqsa Flood, cannot be understood apart from Israel’s neurotic tendencies, its Spartan ethos, the perception of a fracturing of its purported societal model, and the increasing manifestations of PTSD.

Israel and Taiwan stand alone in the world in experiencing a “compulsive anxiety of disappearance.” Whenever Israel encounters a severe crisis or suffers a battlefield setback, this anxiety is triggered in the collective Israeli consciousness, adding a further dimension to PTSD. This, in turn, reinforces neurotic tendencies, as Israeli studies on the subject indicate, and is evident in the rising rates of suicide among military personnel entrusted with the societal mission of preventing the state’s disappearance.[40] While most countries contend with political crises, regime changes, economic turmoil, or wars, Israel is uniquely preoccupied with the “disappearance of Israel,” particularly given the high frequency of wars. This obsession entrenches a neurotic social structure, producing a society that either turns to suicide, channels its neurosis toward children, women and the hungry, as is currently the case in Gaza Strip, or engages in cognitive manipulation, in line with Leon Festinger’s theory,[41] constructing narratives that align events with the prevailing illusions within the Israeli cognitive framework. In this way, the society’s neurotic structure becomes increasingly complex.

The study of suicide cannot be reduced to the individual level in Spartan-like societies; rather, it reflects a form of societal neurosis. A “neurotic society” is one in which a significant proportion of its members display neurotic personality traits and behaviors, resulting in collective dysfunction and adverse social consequences. Empirical research has demonstrated a clear correlation between a society’s overall aggressiveness and its neurotic composition.[42]

[1] An expert in futures studies, a former professor in the Department of Political Science at Yarmouk University in Jordan and a holder of Ph.D. in Political Science from Cairo University. He is also a former member of the Board of Trustees of Al-Zaytoonah University of Jordan, Irbid National University, the National Center for Human Rights, the Board of Grievances and the Supreme Council of Media. He has authored 37 books, most of which are focused on future studies in both theoretical and practical terms, and published 120 research papers in peer-reviewed academic journals.

[2] Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), site of Mayo Clinic, https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/post-traumatic-stress-disorder/symptoms-causes/syc-20355967

[3] For more details about these theories, see I. Díaz-Oliván et. al, “Theoretical models of suicidal behaviour: A systematic review and narrative synthesis,” The European Journal of Psychiatry, vol. 35, issue 3, July – September 2021, https://www.elsevier.es/en-revista-european-journal-psychiatry-431-articulo-theoretical-models-suicidal-behaviour-a-S0213616321000033; and Albert Camus on suicide, absurdity, and the meaning of life, site of Big Think, 20/3/2023, https://bigthink.com/personal-growth/the-meaning-of-life-albert-camus-on-faith-suicide-and-absurdity

[4] Thomas Joiner, Why People Die by Suicide (US: Harvard University Press, 2005), pp. 94–133 and 172–198.

[5] Suicide mortality rate (per 100 000 population), site of World Health Organization (WHO), 8/1/2024, https://data.who.int/indicators/i/F08B4FD/16BBF41?m49=376

[6] Suicide Rate by Country 2025, site of World Population Review, https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/suicide-rate-by-country; and Countries Around the World Ranked by Suicide Rate, site of NY Requirements – Blog, https://nyrequirements.com/img/blog/suicide-rate-by-country-4-1000px.png

[7] GDP per capita, PPP – Country rankings, site of TheGlobalEconomy.com, https://www.theglobaleconomy.com/rankings/GDP_per_capita_PPP

[8] “Democracy Index 2024,” https://static.poder360.com.br/2025/03/the-economist-democracia-.pdf

[9] Site of Global Militarisation Index, Bonn International Centre for Conflict Studies (bicc), 2022, https://gmi.bicc.de/ranking-table?year=2022

[10] Leah Shelef, Lucian Laur and Eyal Fruchter, “Characteristics of the suicidal soldier in the Israeli Defense Force-a review of literature,” Disaster and Military Medicine journal, 6/4/2015, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5329921

[11] Mason Stewart, “The Interpersonal Theory of Suicide: Military Populations” (Undergraduate Honors Theses, Brigham Young University, 2022), https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1236&context=studentpub_uht

[12] Suicide Rate by Country 2025, World Population Review, https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/suicide-rate-by-country

[13] Yossi Levi-Belz et. al, Moral Injury and Suicide Ideation Among Combat Veterans (Germany: Hogrefe Publishing, 2022), pp. 5–7; and Shira Maguen et. al, “Moral injury and peri- and post-military suicide attempts among post-9/11 veterans,” Psychological Medicine journal, vol. 53, no. 7, May 2023, pp. 3200–3209.

[14] ‘He got out of Gaza, but Gaza did not get out of him’: Israeli soldiers returning from war struggle with trauma and suicide, site of Cable News Network (CNN), 21/10/2024, https://edition.cnn.com/2024/10/21/middleeast/gaza-war-israeli-soldiers-ptsd-suicide-intl; Eric-Hans Kramer and Tine Molendijk, Violence in Extreme Conditions (Germany: Springer, 2023), https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-031-16119-3_5; Isabelle Mandraud, The Israeli soldiers, killers and victims, treated for PTSD: ‘You think we’re monsters, don’t you?’, site of Le Monde, 25/11/2024, https://www.lemonde.fr/en/international/article/2024/11/25/the-israeli-soldiers-killers-and-victims-treated-for-ptsd-you-think-we-re-monsters-don-t-you_6734017_4.html; Tom Levinson, ‘We’re Not the Same People Anymore’: IDF Soldiers Reveal What No Israeli Wants to Hear About Months of Fighting in Gaza, site of Haaretz newspaper, 3/7/2025, https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/2025-07-03/ty-article-magazine/.premium/idf-soldiers-reveal-what-no-one-in-israel-wants-to-hear-about-months-of-fighting-in-gaza/00000197-cf00-dcbf-abd7-df3d0ea30000; Robert Martin (@robert_martin_palestine), “I was a subconscious racist for many years,” site of Instagram, 14/7/2025, https://www.instagram.com/reel/DME9PpKN3ry

[15] Maayan Hoffman, After the Battlefield: Suicide Becomes Leading Threat to Israeli Soldiers, site of The Media Line, 29/7/2025, https://themedialine.org/top-stories/after-the-battlefield-suicide-becomes-leading-threat-to-israeli-soldiers; Leah Shelef, Lucian Laur and Eyal Fruchter, “Characteristics of the suicidal soldier in the Israeli Defense Force-a review of literature,” Disaster and Military Medicine, 6/4/2015; and IDF says number of troop suicides has risen during war, with hundreds of thousands in reserves, site of The Times of Israel, 2/1/2025, https://www.timesofisrael.com/liveblog_entry/idf-says-number-of-troop-suicides-has-risen-during-war-with-hundreds-of-thousands-in-reserves

[16] Keith R. Aronson, Ryan P. Chesnut and Daniel F. Perkins, “Evaluating the interpersonal theory of suicide among post-9/11 veterans: Suicidal desire and intent in the early transition to civilian life,” Journal of Affective Disorders, vol. 382, 1/8/2025, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0165032725006809

[17] Rafael Youngmann, Nelly Zilber, Ziona Haklai and Nehama Goldberger, “Suicide rates and risk factors for suicide among Israeli immigrants from Ethiopia (1985–2017),” Israel Journal of Health Policy, 23/3/2021, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7985741; and Yohanan Eshel, Shaul Kimhi, Hadas Marciano and Bruria Adini, “Ethnic origin of Israeli Jews and psychological responses to the extreme stress of the ongoing war with Hamas in Gaza,” Frontiers in Psychology journal, vol. 15, 23/10/2024, https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1403132/full

[18] Seyyed Mohammad Hosseini, Ambiguity in predicting the future of the Gaza war, site of Institute of Political and International Studies (IPIS), 5/12/2023, https://www.ipis.ir/en/subjectview/736638/ambiguity-in-predicting-the-future-of-the-gaza-war

[19] Tom Bennett, ‘The mood is changing’: Israeli anger grows at conduct of war, site of British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), 21/5/2025, https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cj422k1zzd9o; In Israel, frustration grows as hostages remain in captivity, site of Deutsche Welle (DW), 26/7/2025, https://www.dw.com/en/in-israel-frustration-grows-as-hostages-remain-in-captivity/video-73425007; Hundreds of former Mossad operatives criticise Israel’s return to war in Gaza, site of The Guardian newspaper, 14/4/2025, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2025/apr/14/israel-government-gaza-hostages-mossad-criticism

[20] Erez Cohen, “Political and public discourse surrounding constitutional reform and its implications for the Israeli economy,” The Social Science Journal, 10/7/2025, https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03623319.2025.2529592?src=exp-la

[21] 2024 UNGA Resolutions on Israel vs. Rest of the World, site of UN Watch, 3/11/2024, https://unwatch.org/2024-unga-resolutions-on-israel-vs-rest-of-the-world

[22] Walid ‘Abd al-Hay, Operation al-Aqsa Flood and Israel’s International Status Indicators, site of al-Zaytouna Centre for Studies and Consultations, 30/4/2025, https://eng.alzaytouna.net/2025/04/30/academic-paper-operation-al-aqsa-flood-and-israels-international-status-indicators/

[23] Highest number of countries engaged in conflict since World War II, site of Vision of Humanity, 11/6/2024, https://www.visionofhumanity.org/highest-number-of-countries-engaged-in-conflict-since-world-war-ii; Political stability – Country rankings, TheGlobalEconomy.com, https://www.theglobaleconomy.com/rankings/wb_political_stability/MENA; and Michael J. Salamon, The dark psychology of terror: How Hamas weaponizes human suffering, site of THE HILL, 24/2/2025, https://thehill.com/opinion/5160092-the-dark-psychology-of-terror-how-hamas-weaponizes-human-suffering

[24] 2025 Global Peace Index, Vision of Humanity, https://www.visionofhumanity.org/maps/#/

[25] Countries Around the World Ranked by Suicide Rate, NY Requirements – Blog, https://nyrequirements.com/blog/countries_around_the_world_ranked_by_suicide_rate

[26] See the details of these figures in: Stav Levaton, Concerns deepen over military’s mental health system after series of soldier suicides, The Times of Israel, 23/7/2025, https://www.timesofisrael.com/concerns-deepen-over-militarys-mental-health-system-after-series-of-soldier-suicides; Suicide mortality rate (per 100 000 population), WHO, 8/1/2024, https://data.who.int/indicators/i/F08B4FD/16BBF41 and https://data.who.int/indicators/i/F08B4FD/16BBF41?m49=376; Rafael Youngmann, Nelly Zilber, Ziona Haklai and Nehama Goldberger, “Suicide rates and risk factors for suicide among Israeli immigrants from Ethiopia (1985–2017),” Israel Journal of Health Policy, 23/3/2021; Israeli Army Faces Spike in Soldier Suicides amid Gaza Assault, Tasnim News Agency, 15/7/2025, https://www.tasnimnews.com/en/news/2025/07/15/3355151/israeli-army-faces-spike-in-soldier-suicides-amid-gaza-assault; Tom Levinson, IDF Trainee Dies After Suicide Attempt as Military Suicides Continue to Rise, Haaretz, 21/7/2025, https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/2025-07-21/ty-article/.premium/idf-trainee-dies-after-suicide-attempt-as-military-suicides-continue-to-rise/00000198-2b7e-da4b-a7d9-3ffe4d8f0000; and Another Israeli soldier dies by suicide amid Gaza war, site of Anadolu Agency, 20/7/2025, https://www.aa.com.tr/en/middle-east/another-israeli-soldier-dies-by-suicide-amid-gaza-war/3636487

[27] Most Israeli sources confirm a rise in suicide rates in the army following Operation al-Aqsa Flood, see IDF suicide rate rises amid ongoing war and mass reservist call-ups, The Times of Israel, 2/1/2025, https://www.timesofisrael.com/idf-suicide-rate-rises-amid-ongoing-war-and-mass-reservist-call-ups

[28] Walid ‘Abd al-Hay, Operation al-Aqsa Flood and Israel’s International Status Indicators, site of al-Zaytouna Centre for Studies and Consultations, 30/4/2025

[29] Rafael Youngmann, Nelly Zilber, Ziona Haklai and Nehama Goldberger, “Suicide rates and risk factors for suicide among Israeli immigrants from Ethiopia (1985–2017),” Israel Journal of Health Policy, 23/3/2021; Stav Levaton, Concerns deepen over military’s mental health system after series of soldier suicides, The Times of Israel, 23/7/2025; Suicide mortality rate (per 100 000 population), WHO, 8/1/2024; IDF suicide rate rises amid ongoing war and mass reservist call-ups, The Times of Israel, 2/1/2025; and Yohanan Eshel, Shaul Kimhi, Hadas Marciano and Bruria Adini, “Ethnic origin of Israeli Jews and psychological responses to the extreme stress of the ongoing war with Hamas in Gaza,” Frontiers in Psychology journal, vol. 15, 23/10/2024.

[30] Maayan Hoffman, After the Battlefield: Suicide Becomes Leading Threat to Israeli Soldiers, The Media Line, 29/7/2025; and IDF suicide rate rises amid ongoing war and mass reservist call-ups, The Times of Israel, 2/1/2025

[31] Ibid.; and Anaelle Jonah, Suicide rate in Israeli army hits 13-year high amid ongoing war, site of france24, 3/1/2025, https://www.france24.com/en/middle-east/20250103-suicide-rate-in-israeli-army-hits-thirteen-year-high-amid-ongoing-war

[32] Gideon Fishman et. al, “Suicide in the Israeli Army,” Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior journal, vol. 20, no. 3, 1990, pp. 225–239.

[33] Yuval Neria et. al, “Israeli mental health in the aftermath of the October 7 terrorist attack: risks, challenges, and recommendations,” Israel Journal of Health Policy, 16/4/2025, https://ijhpr.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13584-025-00682-8

[34] Leah Shelef, Lucian Laur, Gil Raviv and Eyal Fruchter, “A military suicide prevention program in the Israeli Defense Force: a review of an important military medical procedure, Disaster and Military Medicine, 2/9/2015, https://disastermilitarymedicine.biomedcentral.com/counter/pdf/10.1186/s40696-015-0007-y.pdf

[35] Anaelle Jonah, Suicide rate in Israeli army hits 13-year high amid ongoing war, france24, 3/1/2025.

[36] Suicide Rate by Country 2025, World Population Review, https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/suicide-rate-by-country

[37] Stephen E. Roberts et. al, “Suicide rates in the UK Armed Forces, compared with the general workforce and merchant shipping during peacetime years since 1900,” BMJ Military Health journal, vol. 170, Issue e2, https://militaryhealth.bmj.com/content/170/e2/e128

[38] Jeffrey Allen Smith et. al, “A Historical Examination of Military Records of US Army Suicide, 1819 to 2017,” Jama Network Open journal, vol. 2, no. 12, 2019, passim.

[39] Pnina Sharvit Baruch, “Israel on the Dangerous Path to International Isolation,” site of The Institute for National Security Studies (INSS), 4/7/2024, https://www.inss.org.il/publication/isolation

[40] Harvey J.Schwartz (ed.), Psychotherapy of the Combat Veterans (New York: Spectrum Publications, 1984), pp. 269–303.

[41] Leon Festinger, A theory of Cognitive Dissonance (Stanford University Press, 1968), pp. 260–266.

[42] Fangying Quan, Yan Gou, Yibo Gao et. al, “The relationship between neuroticism and social aggression: a moderated mediation model,” BMC Psychology journal, 16/8/2024, https://bmcpsychology.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40359-024-01938-9